Is the universe infinite? Was there a beginning of time? Einstein himself preferred to think of the universe as unchanging, having neither beginning nor end. Experiments showed the expansion of the universe, proving Einstein wrong. Given this new evidence scientists had two choices: either the universe started in an incredibly dense state and expanded, diluting to the density we observe today (the big bang model) or even though it is expanding there is a mechanism keeping the density of the universe constant, so that the overall appearance of the universe stays the same (the steady state model). More and more evidence favouring the big bang model was found, but some cosmologists clung tight to the idea of the steady state theory. Take some time to listen to this week’s episode of Good in Theory!

How do rocks form? Neptunism is a theory that suggests all rocks formed in a primeval ocean through sedimentation. Proponents claimed this could explain why we find different types of rock in different layers of the earth. Volcanic phenomena were dismissed as being newer in earth's history and not relevant for understanding most rocks we can observe. While intriguing, this theory did not stand the test of time as other types of rock formation were shown to be significant. Dive in and listen to this week’s episode of Good in Theory!

At an early stage of development human embryos have gill-like features. Observations like this prompted scientists to suggest that embryo development copies the evolutionary development of the species. Their theory became known as recapitulation theory and had the slogan “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”. Many scientists, such as Charles Darwin, disagreed with recapitulation theory even though they agreed that embryos of different species share a lot of similarities. Ultimately as the development of embryos in the womb was better understood recapitulation theory was superseded. Still it left its mark on science, even influencing cognitive research and music theory. Develop your understanding of embryology and listen to this week’s episode of Good in Theory!

What is the difference between hydrogen and helium? Before the internal structure of atoms was known atoms were thought to be like tiny pool balls. This can explain different sizes and masses, but fails to explain the difference in chemical properties. That’s when the vortex theory of atoms emerged. Atoms were believed to be vortexes in an aether that permeated everything. This theory went beyond established mathematics, so that its proponents had to develop hydrodynamics and establish a new field called knot theory. The full theory seemed to always be just out of reach, but surely with a bit more development of the mathematical foundations all open questions would be answered. In the end the downfall of aether theory took the vortex theory of the atom down with it. Do knot miss out on this week’s episode of Good in Theory!

After the great success of thermodynamics some scientists started to doubt that mechanics,

the theory describing the movement of matter, was fit to describe the underlying nature of

reality. They believed that thermodynamics teaches us that energy is more fundamental than

matter, leading them to the theory of energeticism. Not only was this theory met with

scepticism, its proponents were pretty much attacked by scientists backing the more

accepted theory of atoms. Everyone loves an underdog, but unfortunately this story ends

with the destruction of energeticism when atoms were experimentally discovered. If you want

some good energy, listen to this week’s podcast of Good in Theory.

Where did humanity as a species come from? By the end of the 19th century scientists had accepted Darwin’s theory of evolution. So what does this mean for humanity? Nowadays humans live (almost) all over the world, but where did the first humans live? Given that we all belong to one species scientists thought that we can’t have evolved independently everywhere, but that there was an original cradle of humanity and later humans embarked on their quest to populate (almost) all continents. The first evidence for early humans was found in south-east Asia. Bias and false ideas of how early humans should have looked like led to a long period of time in which people believed humanity stems out of Asia. But in the end scientists found evidence of earlier humans in Africa. Dig into the history of humanity by listening to this week’s episode of Good in Theory.

How come predators never hunt their prey to extinction? Is this balance of species in an ecosystem a natural law or more of a superstition? Already the ancient Greeks seemed to have believed in a balance of nature and nowadays this terminology is still sometimes used. But what exactly is this balance and can it be defined in a scientific way? This question was raised in the 18th century when the discovery of fossils of unknown species radically changed our view on ecology. While some scientists still tried to make sense of it, today the world “balance” is no longer seen as useful when describing ecosystems. For a good balance of entertainment and information listen to this week’s episode of Good in Theory.

Why does your tea get cold if you leave it standing around for too long? Because the temperature of the tea adjusts to the temperature of the room, but why? The process of transferring heat puzzled many scientists. In the late 18th century caloric theory emerged in which the temperature of a body depends on the amount of “caloric” it possesses. Caloric was thought to be a weightless fluid which flows from hotter to colder bodies. The theory succeeded in explaining phenomena like your tea going cold. Although the theory managed to capture some key properties of heat it had several shortcomings and ultimately didn’t stand the test of time. If you are burning to learn more, listen to this week’s episode of Good in Theory.